BOSKANNO - BASAVANNA - KOLATTAM

நான் சிறுவனாக இருந்த பொது மாலை வேளையில் அருகிலுள்ள தெற்குக் கிருஷ்ணன் கோவிலுக்குச் செல்வது வழக்கம்.   ஆனால் ஒரு குறிப்பிட்ட காலகட்டத்தில் கோவில் வாசலில் ஒரு காவலாளி நின்றுகொண்டு ஆண்களை மட்டும் உள்ளே செல்ல அனுமதி மறுத்தான்.  எனக்குக் காரணம் புரியவில்லை.  அப்போது தலையாரி குருநாதன் கோவில் தெருவில் குடியிருந்த நேரம்.  சென்னையிலிருந்து நாங்கள் மதுரைக்கு மாற்றலாகி இருந்த நேரம்.  எனக்குப் புரியவில்லை.  நான் சிறுவன்.  உடனே என் அம்மாவிடம் போய் தகவலைச் சொன்னேன்.'ஆமாம் - கோவிலில் கோலாட்டம் - பொஸ்கண்ணா  நடைபெறுகிறது - எனவே பக முடியாது - என்று சொன்னார்கள்.  எனக்குப் புரியவில்லை.  கோவில் வாசலில் நின்று சிறுது நேரம் பார்த்தேன்.  பெண்கள் கோலாட்டம்  ஆட சிவப்பு - மஞ்சள் - பச்சை ஆகிய நிறங்கள் பூசப்பட்ட வண்ண வண்ண கோல்களைக் கையில் எடுத்துக் கொண்டு போனார்கள்.  சிறுவன் என்பதால் ஒன்றும் புரிய வில்லை.  பிறகு நான் பள்ளி இறுதி படித்துக் கொண்டிருக்கும் போது - மீண்டும் இப்படி ஒரு சம்பவம் நடந்தது.   இது மனதில் நன்றாகப் படிந்து விட்டது.  நான் பல பேரிடம் பொஸ்கண்ணா  என்றால் என்ன என்று கேட்டுப் பார்த்தேன்.   முறையான பதில் கிடைக்கவில்லை.  அப்போதெல்லாம் - மதுரை மஞ்சனகாரத் தெரு மற்றும் தெற்கு மாசி வீதி சந்திப்பில் வடபுறம் நல்லதநீர் கிணற்று சந்து என்று ஒரு தெரு இருக்கும்.  அந்த இடத்தில கோலாட்டம் விழாவில் பங்கு கொண்டவர்கள் எல்லாம் செல்வார்கள்.  அவ்வளவு தான் தெரியும்.
எனக்கு ஐம்பத்தெட்டு வயது ஆனபோது பெங்களுரு நகருக்குச் சென்று அங்குள்ள என் மகன் வீட்டில் தங்க நேர்ந்தது.   அப்போது பசவா கோவிலுக்குச் செல்ல வேண்டி வந்தது.   அந்த கோவிலில் பெரிய நந்தி தான் பிரதானம்.  சிவலிங்கம் நந்திக்குப் பின்னால் ஒரு கருவறையில் இருப்பார்.  அதைப் பார்த்த போது பசவாவுக்கும்  பொஸ்கண்ணாவுக்கும் தொடர்பு இருக்குமோ என்று நினைத்தேன்.  இப்போது வலைத் தளங்களுக்குச் செல்லும் வாய்ப்பு கிடைத்தபோது தென்னிந்தியாவில் உள்ள பல சமூகங்களைப்  பற்றி திரு எட்கர் திர்ச்டன் எழுதிய  நூலில் சௌராட்டிரர்களைப்  பற்றி பட்நூல்கரன் என்ற தலைப்பில் ஒரு அருமையான கட்டுரை இருந்தது.  படித்தேன்.  பரவசமானேன்.  நமது மொழியைப் பற்றி - நமது பழக்க வழக்கங்கள் பற்றி - நமது சமுகம் எங்கிருந்து எப்படியெல்லாம் புலம் பெயர்த்து வந்துள்ளது - எங்கெல்லாம் வாழ்கிறார்கள் - என்னென்ன நடைமுறைகளை எல்லாம் பின்பற்றுகிறார்கள் என்று மிக விளக்கமாக அதில் கூறி இருந்தார்.  நமது சமுதாயத்தில் உள்ள அனைவரும் - குறிப்பாக ஆங்கிலம் படித்தவர்கள் அதை படித்து தங்களைச் சுற்றி இருப்பவர்களுக்குச்
 சொல்லவேண்டும்.   அப்போது தான் நமது இளைஞர்களுக்கு நம் இனத்தைப் பற்றித் தெரியும்.
சமிபத்தில் ஒரு இளைஞர் ஒரு பெண்ணுடன் பெங்களூரில் இருந்த என் வீட்டுக்கு வந்தார்.  உடன் வந்த பெண் பிராமண இனத்தைச் சேர்ந்த பெண்.  அந்தப் பெண் என்னிடம் "நான் இவரைத் திருமணம் செய்து கொள்ள வேண்டும் - இவரைக் காதலிக்கிறேன் - ஆனால் என் பெட்ரோல் பிராமணரைத் தான் திருமணம் செய்து வைப்போம் என்று கூறுகிறார்கள்.  உங்கள் இனம் பிராமண இனத்தைச் சார்ந்ததா என்று கேட்டார்.  நான் "ராணி மங்கம்மாள் காலத்தில் இது போன்று ஒரு சர்ச்சை வந்து ராணியின் கவனத்திற்குச் சென்று அவர் எங்களைப் பிராமணர் என்று அங்கிகாரம் செய்து இருக்கிறார்" என்று சொன்னேன்.  அது ஒரு செவி வழிச் செய்தி தான்.
இப்போது இந்த கட்டுரையில் அதற்கான ஆதாரங்கள் இருந்தன.  இதிலே "பொஸ்கண்ணா" பற்றியும் தகவல் இருந்தது.  பசவண்ணா என்று கன்னட நாட்டில் ஒரு தத்துவ ஞானி இருந்ததாகவும் கிருஷ்ண தேவராயர் காலத்தில் இருந்தே அவர் கூறிய கருத்துக்களக் கூறிக் கொண்டே கோலாட்டம் ஆடுவார்கள் என்றும் இருந்தது.  பிறகு கோலாட்டம் பற்றி பல கட்டுரைகளைப் படித்தேன்.  முன்பு சேலம், பாளையம்கோட்டை போன்ற நகரங்களில் கோலாட்டம் ஆடும் பாகவதர்கள் அதிகமாக இருந்ததாகவும் தற்போது அருகி விட்டதாகவும் சேலத்தைச் சேர்ந்த ஒரு நண்பர் கூறி இருந்தார்.
ஒரு விஷயத்தைப் பற்றித் தெரிந்து கொள்ள எவ்வளவு காலம் ஆகிறது பாருங்கள். உங்கள் வசதிக்காக அந்த கட்டுரையையும் - மதுரை SOURASHTRA COLLEGE SANSKIRIT DEPARTMENT  - மதுரை சௌரட்டிரக் கல்லூரி வடமொழித் துறைப் பேராசிரியர் திரு.தாமோதரன் அவர்கள் கொடுத்துள்ள பல அருமையான தகவல்களையும் இணைத்துள்ளேன்.  அருள் கூர்ந்து படித்துப் பயன் பெறவும்.

Sourashtralogy Research
Integrated Sourashtra Organisation
or Learning & Research
 I S O L R )
36, Vasuki Street, Ganapathy Nagar, Madurai, Tamilnadu.
Ph: 0425 267 7036
Sourashtra or "Sourashtras" refers to a community of people who had their original homes in Gujarat and presently settled in Madurai, Thanjavur, Kumbakonam, Ammayappan, Dindugal, Salem and other places of Tamilnadu. The origin of the name date backs to the time when the ancestors of theses people inhabited the kingdom of Sourashtra in Gujarat State[1]. The Tamil name by which these people is known in Southern India is Patnūlkarar, that is silk-thread workers or weavers who speak "Pattunuli" or "Khatri", a dialect of Gujarati[2].
The details about Sourashtra community is discussed by A.J. Saunders[3].
Sourashtra, also known as Palkar. Sowrashtra, Saurashtram, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in parts of the Southern Indian State of Tamil Nadu. The Ethnologies puts the number of speakers at 510,000 (1997 IMA), although the actual number could be double this figure or even more.
Classification
Sourashtram is classified under Indo-European Family – Aryan Sub Family -Indo-Aryan Branch – Inner Sub Branch Central Group-and pending some authoritative work, is tentatively grouped under Gujarati according to Linguistic Survey of India. vide Census of India 1961 Volume I INDIA Part II-
i) Language Tables p.ccxvii,published by The Manager of Publications, Civil Lines, Delhi, 1967.
"Saurāshtra is, through and through, an Indo-Aryan language. Sourāshtran publications are sufficient proof that it is an adequate medium for literary expression" vide The Saurashtrans of South India, By Dr.H.N.Randle, Plate VIII, In the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, London October, 1944.
"sou" in Hindi means 100 and "rashtra" refers to region so in general Sourashtra refers to a province of 100 regions. Another meaning for Sourashtram is WEALTHY KINGDOM.[citation needed]That is why Mohamed Gaznavi invaded Saurashtra and looted Somanath Temple and carried away the treasures.[citation needed]
dit] Geographical Distribution
The speakers of the Saurashtra language, known as Saurashtrians, maintain a predominant presence in Madurai, a city, also known as 'Temple City' in the southern part of Tamil Nadu. Though official figures are hard to come by, it is believed that the Saurashtra population is anywhere between one-fourth and one-fifth of the city's total population. They are also present in significant numbers in Dindigul, Periyakulam, Paramakudi, Erode, Palani, kancheepuram, Rajapalayam, Nilakottai, Salem, Namakkal,[Trichy]],Pudukkottai, Kumbakonam, Thiruvarur, Ayyampettai, Ammapettai,Dharasuram,Thirubhuvanam,Ammayappan, Walaja, Arni, Tiruvannamalai, Palayamkottai, Krishnapuram, Veeravanallur,Vellanguli Tirunelveli and Kottar in Nagercoil. Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh is said to house several Saurashtrian families, known as Pattusali or Saurastrian Brahmins in local parlance.
At the period of English rule, more than 100 princely states combied as 'UNITED STATE OF SAURASHTRA'. In later both Maharashtra and Gujarat states and some part of Madyapradesh state called STATE OF SAURASHTRA. After Independence the State of Sourashtra divided as Maharashtra and Gujarat. The alternate name of Sourashtra is PALKAR which means 'PEOPLE OF DESERT'. The people of Desert region of West India called paLkar migrated to Tamil Nadu for various reasons. The Somnath of Gujarat state and nearby Rain-shadow area and Thar desert called 'THAR PARKAR' are the etimology of the word 'palkar' which shows and gives the migration reason also. A sizable number is also found in Chennai (formerly Madras), Bangalore, and other parts of India, but this presence is largely due to small-scale migrations in the last few decades from one of the aforesaid traditional Saurashtrian settlements.
Now hundreds of families have migrated to USA, UK, Arab Countries like Dubai, and East Asian Countries Malaysia, Singapore etc.

Saurashtra marriages

There will be two separate hall for bride and groom, On the morning of the wedding day, the groom goes to bride's hall with dhoti and umbrella for a ritual called kasiyatra(it is represent by the language is oduvam) wherein he is intercepted by the parents of the bride and his feet is washed by the girl's parents on a silver plate. After this ritual, the groom moves to the marriage hall for the all-important sacred thread tying (mangal sutra) which marks the culmination of bachelorhood and entering into married life. This is followed by lunch to all the invitees. In the evening a reception is arranged wherein the bride and bridegroom sit/stand on a podium. All the invitees greet the newlywed couples. This is followed by dinner.
History
Though there is little historical evidence available to support the argument that the Saurashtrians lived in the Saurashtra region of Gujarat in Western India, folklore, and recent linguistic and genetic researches have been able to establish, that this region was indeed once the habitat of the Saurashtrians. However, their language has more similarities with Marathi and Konkani, both Indo-Aryan languages of Western India, than it does with Modern Gujarati, the language of present-day Gujarat. Linguists have been able to explain why it is so: Both Saurashtra and Gujarati branched off from a common parent, and have since taken completely different paths to modernity. Gujarati came under the influence of Hindi, Persian, and Arabic, whereas Saurashtra, taking off from Gujarat before it had made any Muslim contact, was influenced by Marathi, Konkani, Kannada, Telugu, and finally, Tamil. It has been acknowledged that Persian and Arabic have had only limited influence on Marathi and Konkani, and this is why they still retain a good amount of vocabulary and grammar derived from Sanskrit, as compared to other daughter languages of Sanskrit. It is possible that the vocabulary and grammar shared between Modern Saurashtra and Marathi is what was originally derived from Sanskrit.
The southward flight of the Saurashtrians seems to have been triggered by the frequent Muslim invasions of their homeland and the instability caused by it. No details are available whether it was a mass migration and when it took place. They found safe haven in the Vijayanagar Kingdom, with its capital at Hampi in present-day Karnataka, which was then expanding southwards. Weaving being their traditional occupation, they were able to win the attention of the Emperor and were soon elevated to the position of royal weavers. Telugu and Kannada were the court languages, though other languages such as Sanskrit and Tamil were also in use. It was during this period that Saurashtra started absorbing Telugu and Kannada words into its lexicon.
VIJAYANAGAR rulers had the practice of appointing Governors, known as Nayaks, to manage far-flung regions of the empire. When Madurai and Thanjavur were annexed to the empire, Governors were appointed to administer the new territories. A part of the Saurashtra community may have moved to Madurai and Thanjavur at the time to serve the Governors.
The Vijayanagar empire collapsed after more than two centuries of rule, in 1565, after the Sultans of Deccan Confederacy won the battle of Talikota, thus opening up southern India for Muslim conquest. Soon afterwards, the Governors of Madurai and Thanjavur declared themselves the new rulers of the respective territories.
Sourashtrians had to migrate again since they no longer enjoyed the royal patronage they were used to, and so, once again, were on the move. As there were Saurashtrians already present in Madurai and Thanjavur, it was only natural that they migrated further south to join their folks living there. The language would undergo one last alteration, this time influenced by Tamil, to bring it to its modern form. To this day, Saurashtrians are densely populated around the Royal Palace of Thirumalai Nayak, the greatest of the Nayak Rulers that ruled Madurai. There are good number of people staying in Mumbai(Maharashtra) in a place called Cheeta Camp and also in other parts of the city.
It is important to note that the Marathi-speaking community in Thanjavur should not be mistaken for Saurashtrians. The Marathi community arrived in Thanjavur during King Serfoji's reign and they are culturally and linguistically distinct from Saurashtrians.
The greatest of the Nayak Rulers had great liking for silk wears and as the Saurashtrians were specialists in the weaving trade, they were invited by the King for weaving special silk clothings for the palace dwellers and that is how they settled around the palace of Thirumalai Nayak.

Sourashtra Vijayaaptham
Sourashtra Vijayaaptham denotes the era of Sourashtra Migration. It commences from Tamil Calendar Chitrai 1st. It is derived from subtracting 1312 from the Gregorian Calendar year. It is 697 from 14 April 2009 to 13 April 2010. It is not known how the Era started. But currently it is stated in the Almanac Panchangam and people are using it.
Writing System

The language has had its own script for centuries,the earliest one available from 1880. Dr. H.N. Randle has written an article 'An Indo-Aryan Language of South India—Saurashtra Bhasha' in the Bulletin of School of Oriental and African Studies (BSOAS) 11 Part 1 p. 104-121 and Part II p. 310-327 (1943-46)Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of School of Oriental and African Studies.
This language is not taught in schools and hence had been confined to being merely a spoken language.But many great works like Bhagavath Gita and Tirukkural were translated into Sourashtram.
It is now a Literary Language. Sahitya Akademi has recognized this language by conferring Bhasha Samman awards to Sourashtra Scholars.
Most Saurashtrians are bilingual in their mother tongue and Tamil and are more comfortable using their second language for all practical written communication though of late, some of them started writing in Sourashtram using Sourashtra script.
There is an ongoing debate within the Saurashtra community regarding the use of the Script for Sourashtra Language right from 1920 when a resolution was passed to adopt Devanagari Script for Sourashtra Language. Though some of the books were printed in Devanagari script, it failed to register the growth of the language.
But in practice because of lack of printing facilities, books are continued to be printed in Tamil Script with diacritic marks with superscript number for the consonants ka, ca, Ta, ta and pa and adding a colon to na:, ma:, ra:, and la: for aspirated forms, which are peculiar to Sourashtra Language.
For writing Sourashtram using Devanagari Script, we require seven additional symbols to denote the short vowels 'e' and 'o' and four symbols for aspirated forms viz. nha, mha, rha and lha. We also require one more symbol to mark the sound of 'half yakara' which is peculiar to Sourashtra language.
The books printed in Devanagari Script were discarded because they did not represent the sounds properly.
The Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Allahabad by his letter No.123/5/1/62/1559 dated Novembewr 21, 1964 Communicated to Sourashtra Vidya Peetam, Madurai that the State Government were of the view that as only one book in Sourashtra Language had so far been submitted by Sourashtra Vidya Peetam for scrutiny, there was no point in examining the merits of only one book specially when the question regarding the usage of script - Hindi or Sourashtram, was still unsettled, and that the question of text books in Sourashtram might well lie over till a large number of books is available for scrutiny and for being prescribed as text books in Schools.
The Leaders in the Community could not realize the importance of teaching of Mother tongue in schools and did not evince interest in production of Text books in Sourashtram for class use.
Of late in internet, many sourashtra yahoo groups in their website use roman script for Sourashtra language.
Now Sourashtra font is available in Computer and this enabled the supporters of Sourashtra Script to print books in its own script. An Electronic Journal, printed in Sourashtra Script, VISHWA SOURASHTRAM has been started http://sourashtra.info Another website http://palkarblogs.com is available for practicing Sourashtra Script.
One Journal Bhashabhimani is published from Madurai, in Sourashtra Script.
Dialects
Each of the traditional Saurashtrian settlements has its own dialect. Since there is not a central linguistic body governing the rules, and establishing what is standard and what is not, each dialect speaker considers his own the standard form. Because people were not used to write their language, proper study of the dialect variations were not undertaken. Recently only an awareness has arisen and people are slowly practicing written Sourashtram.

Dictionaries have been compiled, but dialect variations are not properly noted.
Saurashtra-English Dictionary by Uchida Norihiko is available.
Saurashtra-Tamil-English Dictionary one by K.R.Sethuraman and
T.V.Kubendran are available. English-Saurashtra Dictionary is being compiled.
Similarly variation in syntax is also to be studied and a book is to be published for better understanding one's speech.
The earliest Sourashtra Book printed in Sourashtra Script available now is SOURASHTRANADHI by Pandit Lakshmanachariyar (1880).
T.M.Rama Rai is the doyen of the development of Sourashtra Script and Literature.He published many books in Sourashtra Script and wrote Grammar and Text books in Sourashtram.
A website is available to practice writing in Sourashtram. Visit http://www.palkarblogs.com
An E-Journal by name VISHWA SOURASHTRAM was released on 28 May 2009. Visit http://www.sourashtra.info
Those who want to study and do research on Sourashtra Language can go through the following books.
1. Pandit Lakshmanachariyar, Sourashtranadhi,
Published by the Author, pp. 1-32 (1880).
2. Rama Rai, T.M., Sourashtra Niti Sambhu,
Published by the Author, pp. 1-48, (1900)
3. Rama Rai, T.M., Sourashtra Primer,
Published by the Author, pp. 1-47, (1899)
4. Rama Rai, T.M., Sourashtra Second Book,
Published by the Author, pp 1–84, (1903).
5. Rama Rai, T.M., First Catechism of Sourashtra Grammar,
Published by: the Author, pp. 1-48, (1905).
6. Rama Rai, T.M., Sourashtra Nandi Nighantu,
Published by the Author, pp. 1-32, (1908).
7. Venkatachala Sarma, T.S., Sandhyavandana Bodhini,
Published by Sourashtra Vidhya Bodhana Sala, Madura. pp. 1-19, (1915).
8. Rengayyar, N.A.S., Sourashtra Sulu Kriya Vallari,
Published by the Author, pp. 1-10, (1916).
9. Saunders, Albert J., The Sourashtra Community in Madura, South India,
The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 32, No. 5, pp. 787-799, (1927).
10. Gramophone records of the languages and dialects of the Madras Presidency,
Text Passages published by Government Museum, Madras, India, (1927).
11. Randle, H.N., Saurashtra Bhasha – An Indo-Aryan language of South India,
Bulletin of School of Oriental and African Studies, Part I, pp. 104-121, (1943).
12. Randle, H.N., Saurashtra Bhasha – An Indo-Aryan language of South India,
Bulletin of School of Oriental and African Studies, Part II, pp. 310-327, (1946).
13. Randle, H.N., The Saurashtrans of South India,
Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, London, (1944).
14. Dringer David, The Alphabet – A key to the history of mankind, (1948).
15. Ramanandam, O.K., Sri Ramarai Sourashtra Vachakamu,
Published by: Sri Ramarai Patasala, Madurai, India, pp. 1-64, (1961).
16. Gopalakrishnan, M.A., A brief study of The Saurashtra Community in the Madras State,
Published by:The Institution of Traditional Cultures, Madras, India, pp. 1-43, (1966).
17. Census of India 1961 Vol.I INDIA Part II –C (ii) Language Tables ,
Published by the Manager of Publications, Civil Lines, Delhi, pp. CCXLIV + 554, (1967).
18. Pandit, P.B., India as a Sociolinguistic Area,
Presented at the Dr. P.D. Gune Memorial Lecture,
Published by: University of Pune, Pune, India, pp. 92, (1972).
19. Dave, I.R., The Saurashtrians in South India – their Language, Literature and Culture, Published by: Saurashtra University, Rajkot, India, pp. 312, (1976).
20. Catalogue of the Saurashtra Books in the India Office Library, London, (1979).
21. Rama Rai, T.M., Ramarai Ramayanu – Sourashtra Vachana Ramayanam,
Edited by: T.V. Kubendran, R.A. Mohanram,
Published by: Sreshta Sourashtra Sahitya Sabha, Madurai, Part I, pp. 88, (1979).
22. Rama Rai, T.M., Ramarai Ramayanu – Sourashtra Vachana Ramayanam,
Edited by: T.V. Kubendran, R.A. Mohanram,
Published by: Sreshta Sourashtra Sahitya Sabha, Madurai, Part II pp. 1-124, (1980).
23. Kubendran, T.V., Sourashtra Dictionary - Sourashtra-Tamil-English,
Published by Bhashabhimani, Sourashtra Literary Monthly Journal,
99-B, West Masi Street, Madurai-625001.(June 2008) VIII+228+p50+p30+p6
24. Sethuraman, K.R., Sethuraman Trilingual Saurashtra Dictionary
(Saurashtram-Tamil-English),
Published by Mrs.K.S.Meera, Raj Prabha Apartment,
New #138, Old # 61-D, Vanniar Street, Choolaimedu,
Chennai-600094. (January 2003) p. 418
25. R. BHASKARA NARAYANAN, " Veda paLamayana Sourashtra"
A short history of Sourashtra people.
139/150, II Agraharam, Salem- 636 001.
26. R.Bhaskara Narayanan, " Samskrita Sourashtra Pada Ikyam"
A comparison of words between Samskrit and Sourashtra.
139/150, II Agraharam, Salem- 636 001.
27. J.S. Venkatavarma, Sourashtra Charitra Sangraham (Madura, 1915)
Gazetter of the Madura District (Madras, 1914), I, 74, 110.
28. "The Sourashtra Community in Madura, South India", Albert James Saunders, The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 32, No. 5 (Mar. 1927) PP. 787-799,
29. Dr. T.R.Damodaran, Life and Contribution of Venkataramana Bhagavathar, 2009
30. Dr. T.R.Damodaran, Sri Natana Gopala Nayaki Sawamigal Sangeerthanaiglal – Sourashtri and Tamil.1999
31. Dr. T.R.Damodaran, Srimat Venkataramana Bhagavathars’ Swara &Kirthanas – 70 With life Sketch. 1994
32. Dr. T.R.Damodaran, Seshayyangar Keerthanaigal, Pub. By TMSSM Library, Tanjore 1982
33. Dr. T.R.Damodaran, Sri Natana Gopala Nayaki Sawamigal Swara & keerthanaigal – Sourashtri and Tamil.1996
34. Sourashtra Sangamam A monthly Research Journal on Sourashtralogy, May – 1, 2010
Dr. T R Damodaran, Sanskrit Scholar

I am Dr. T.R.Damodaran, a Professor of Sanskrit at Sourashtra College, Madurai. I am deeply interested in doing research in Sourashtra Language. Already I have compiled and published the works of Sriman Natana Gopala Nayaki swamigal and Ventakramana Bhagavathar

Edgar Thurston's Book - extraxct
Patnulkaran. -The Patnulkarans are described, in
the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a caste of foreign
weavers found in all the Tamil districts, but mainly in
Madura town, who speak Patnuli or Khatri, a dialect of
Gujarati, and came originally from Gujarat. They have
always been known here as Patnulkarans, or silk thread
people. They are referred to in the inscriptions of
Kumara Gupta (A.D. 473) at Mandasor, south of
Gujarat, by the name of Pattavayaka, which is the
Sanskrit equivalent of Patnulkaran, and the sasanam of
Queen Mangammal of Madura, mentioned below, speaks
of them by the same name, but lately they have taken
to calling themselves Saurashtras from the Saurashtra
country from which they came. They also claim to be
Brahmans. They thus frequently entered themselves
in the schedules as Saurashtra Brahmans. They are
an intelligent and hard-working community, and deserve
every sympathy in the efforts which they are making to
elevate the material prosperity of their members and
improve their educational condition, but a claim to
Brahmanhood is a difficult matter to establish. They
say that their claim is denied because they are weavers
by profession, which none of the Southern Brahmans
are, and because the Brahmans of the Tamil country do
not understand their rites, which are the northern rites.
The Mandasor inscriptions, however, represent them as
soldiers as well as weavers, which does not sound Brah-
manical, and the Tamil Brahmans have never raised any
objections to the Gauda Brahmans calling themselves
such, different as their ways are from those current in
the south. In Madura their claim to Brahmanhood has
always been disputed. As early as 1705 A.D. the
Brahmans of Madura called in question the Patnulkarans'
right to perform the annual upakarma (or renewal of the
sacred thread) in the Brahman fashion. [Eighteen
members of the community were arrested by the
Governor of Madura for performing this ceremony.]
The matter was taken to the notice of the Queen
Mangammal, and she directed her State pandits to con-
vene meetings of learned men, and to examine into it.
On their advice, she issued a cadjan (palm leaf) sasanam
(grant) which permitted them to follow the Brahmani-
cal rites. But all the twice-born whether Brahmans,
Kshatriyas, or Vaisyas are entitled to do the same,
and the sasanam establishes little. The Patnuls point
out that, in some cases, their gotras are Brahmanical.
But, in many instances which could be quoted, Kshatriyas
had also Brahmanical gotras."
It is stated, in the Gazetteer of the Madura district,
that the inscription at Mandasor in Western Malwa
" relates how the Pattavayas, as the caste was then
called, were induced to migrate thither from Lata on the
coast of Gujarat by king Kumara Gupta (or one of his
lieutenants), to practice there their art of silk-weaving.
The inscription says many flattering things about the
community, and poetically compares the city to a beauti-
ful woman, and the immigrants to the silk garments in
which she decks herself when she goes to meet her
lover. [The inscription further records that, while the
noble Bandhuvarman was governing this city of Dasa-
pura, which had been brought to a state of great
prosperity, a noble and unequalled temple of the bright-
rayed (sun) was caused to be built by the silk-cloth
weavers (pattavayair) as a guild with the stores of
wealth acquired by (the exercise of their) craft.] On
the destruction of Mandasor by the Mussalmans, the
Pattavayas seem to have travelled south to Devagiri,
the modern Daulatabad, the then capital of the Yada-
vas, and thence, when the Mussalmans again appeared
on the scene at the beginning of the fourteenth century,
to Vijayanagar, and eventually to Madura. A curious
ceremony confirming this conjecture is performed to this
day at Patnulkaran weddings in South India. Before
the date of the wedding, the bridegroom's party go to
the bride's house, and ask formally for the girl's hand.
Her relations ask them in a set form of words who they
are, and whence they come, and they reply that they are
from Sorath (the old name for Saurashtra or Kathiawar),
resided in Devagiri, travelled south (owing to Mussalman
oppression) to Vijayanagar, and thence came to Madura.
They then ask the bride's party the same question, and
receive the same reply. A Marathi MS., prepared in
1822 at Salem under the direction of the then Collector,
Mr. M. D. Cockburn, contains the same tradition. Mr.
Sewell's ' A Forgotten Empire : Vijayanagar ' shows how
common silk clothing and trappings were at Vijayanagar
in the days of its glory. Most of the Patnulkarans can
still speak Telugu, which raises the inference that they
must have resided a long time in the Telugu country,
while their Patnuli contains many Canarese and Telugu
words, and they observe the feast of Basavanna (or
Boskanna), which is almost peculiar to the Bellary country.
After the downfall of Vijayanagar, some of the caste
seem to have gone to Bangalore, for a weaving com-
munity called Patvegars, who speak a dialect similar to
Patnuli, still reside there." Concerning the Patnulis
who have settled in the Mysore Province, it is noted, in
the Mysore Census Report, 1891, that " with silk the
manufacture a fine stuff called katni, which no other
weavers are said to be able to prepare. It is largely
used by Mussalmans for trousers and lungas (gowns).
It is said that Haider Ali, while returning from his
expeditions against Madras, forcibly brought with him
some twenty-five families of these weavers, who were
living in the Tanjore district, and established them at
Ganjam near Seringapatam, and, in order to encourage
silk and velvet weaving, exempted them from certain
taxes. The industry flourished till the fall of Seringa-
patam, when most of the class fled from the country, a
few only having survived those troublous times. At
present there are only 254 souls returned to these people,
employed in making carpets in Bangalore."
"The Patnulkars," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes,* ((* Manual of the North Arcot district.)"say
that they were originally Brahmans, living in a town
of Surat called Devagiri, in which twelve streets were
entirely peopled by them. For some reason, of which
they profess themselves to be ignorant, the residents of
one of these streets were excommunicated by the rest
of the caste, and expelled. They travelled southwards,
and settled in Tirupati, Arni, and Vellore, as well as in
Trichinopoly, Tanjore, Madura, and other large towns,
where they carried on their trade of silk-weaving.
Another story is to the effect that they were bound to
produce a certain number of silken cloths at each Dlpa-
vali feast in Devagiri for the goddess Lakshmi. One
year their supply fell short, and they were cursed by
the goddess, who decreed that they should no longer
be regarded as Brahmans. They, however, still claim to
be such, and follow the customs of that caste, though
they refuse to eat with them. They acknowledge priests
from among themselves, as well as from among Brahmans,
and profess to look down upon all other castes. In
religion they are divided into Smartas, Vaishnavas,
and Vyaparis, some among the Smartas being Linga-
yats. Those who can write usually employ the Telugu
characters in writing their language."
The Patnulkarans, according to one tradition, claim
descent from a certain Brahman sage, known as Tantu-
vardhanar, meaning literally a person who improves
threads, i.e., manufactures and weaves them into cloths.
This is, it is suggested, probably only an eponymous
hero.
In the Manual of the Madura district, the Patnul-
karans are described as "a caste of Surat silk-weavers,
whose ancestors were induced to settle in Madura by
one of the earlier Nayakkan kings, or in response'to an
invitation from Tirumala Naik, and who have thriven so
well that [they now form by far the most numerous of
all the castes resident in the town of Madura. They
are very skilful and industrious workmen, and many of
them have become very wealthy. They keep altogether
aloof from other castes, and live independently of gen-
eral society, speaking a foreign tongue, and preserving
intact the customs of the land of their origin. They are
easily distinguished in appearance from Tamils, being of
a light yellowish colour, and having handsomer and more
intelligent features. They are called Chettis or mer-
chants by Tamils." In a recent note,* (* Madras Mail, 1907.) the Patnulkarans
of Madura are described as being " exceedingly grega-
rious ; they live together in large numbers in small houses,
and their social status in the country is quite unsettled.
Though they delight to call themselves Saurashtra
Brahmans, the Tamils consider them to be a low caste.
Like the Brahmans, they wear the sacred thread, and
tack on to their names such titles as lyengar, Iyer, Rao,
Bhagavather, Sastrigal, and so forth, though the con-
servatives among them still cling to the time-honoured
simple Chetti. Child marriage is the rule, and widow
marriage is never practiced. Hindus by religion, they
worship indiscriminately both the Siva and Vaishnava
deities, but all of them wear big lyengar namams on
their foreheads, even more prominently than do the real
lyengars themselves. All of them pass for pure vege-
tarians. The proud position of Madura to this day as
second city in the Presidency is mainly, if not solely,
due to her prosperous and industrious community of
Saurashtra merchants and silk-weavers, who have now
grown into nearly half her population, and who have
also come to a foremost place among the ranks of her
citizens. They have their representatives to-day in
the Municipal Councils and in the Local and District
Boards. Their perseverance has won for them a place
in the Devastanam Committee of one of the most pros-
perous temples in the district. But, in spite of their
affluence and leading position it must be confessed that
they are essentially a ' backward class ' in respect of Eng-
lish education and enlightenment. They are, however,
making steady progress. An English high school for
Saurashtra boys, and a number of elementary schools for
girls, are now maintained by the Saurashtra Sabha
for the proper education of their children." In 1906, a
member of the community was appointed a member of
the committee of the Sri Kalla Alagar temple in the
Madura district.
In an order of the Director of Public Instruction, in
1900, it was laid down that " Saurashtras having been
recognised (in 1892) as a backward class falling under
Pattunulgars, the manager cannot continue to enjoy the
privileges accorded under the grant-in-aid code to schools
intended for backward classes, if he returns his pupils
as Brahmans. If the pupils have been returned as
Saurashtra Brahmans, the manager should be requested
to revise, as no such caste is recognised." A deputa-
tion had an interview with the Director, and it was
subsequently ruled that " Saurashtras will continue to
be treated as a backward class. Pupils belonging to
the above class should invariably be returned in future
as Saurashtras, whether the word Brahman is added
or not."
In a " History of the Saurashtras in Southern India"*
(* By the Saurashtra Literary Societies of Madura and Madras, 1891.)it is recorded that " when the urashtras settled in the
south, they reproduced the institutions of their mother
country in the new land ; but, owing to the influence of
the Southern Dravidians, some of the institutions became
extinct. During their migrations, the men were under
the guidance of their leader, and the process of migra-
tion tended to increase the power of kinship. The
people were divided into four heads, called Goundas
(chiefs), Saulins (elders), Voyddoos (physicians), and
Bhoutuls (religious men). Some traces of the division
still survive in the now neglected institution of Goun-
dans. The Goundans were supposed to be responsible
for the acts and doings of their men. The masses
enjoyed the property under the joint undivided Hindu
family system as prescribed in the Code of Manu. The
chiefs were the judges in both civil and criminal affairs.
They were aided in deciding cases by a body of nobles
called Saulins. The office of the Saulins is to make
enquiries, and try. all cases connected with the commu-
nity, and to abide by the decision of the chiefs. The
Voyddoos (pandits) and Bhoutuls (Josis and Kavis also
ranked with Voyddas and Bhoutuls) had their honours
on all important occasions, and they are placed in the
same rank with the elders. The Karestuns, or the Com-
mons, are the whole body of the masses. Their voice is
necessary on certain important occasions, as during the
ceremonies of excommunication, and prayaschittas for
admitting renegades, and during periodical meetings
of the community. The Goundans at present are not
exercising any of their powers, except in some religious
matters. Saurashtra Brahmans were originally leading
a purely religious life, but now they have begun to do
business of different descriptions fitted to their position.
Their chief occupation is agriculture, but some are
trading, dyeing and weaving ; however, it can be safely
affirmed that their business interferes in no way with
their religious creed and ceremonies. The name Patnul-
gar means silk weavers, and is sometimes erroneously
applied to the Saurashtras too ; but, on the contrary, the
term strictly applies to all classes of weavers in Southern
India, called Seniyars, Kaikkolars, Devangas, Kshatris
(Khattris), Parayas, Sengundas, Mudaliars, Saliyurs,
Padmasalays, but not to the Saurashtras in any way.
The Saurashtras are now seen as a mercantile com-
munity. They are brave but humble, god-fearing,
hospitable, fond of festivities and amusement. The
Saurashtras, it is said, were originally a class of sun
worshippers, from soura meaning sun, but the term
Saurashtra means inhabitants of the fruitful kingdom.
Their religion is Hinduism, and they were originally
Madhvas. After their settlement in Southern India,
some of them, owing to the preachings of Sankaracharya
and Ramanujacharya, were converted into Saivites and
Vaishnavites respectively. The Saurashtras belong to
the Aksobhya and Sankaracharya Matas. The Sau-
rashtras, like other nations of India, are divided into four
great divisions, viz., Brahma, Kshatriya, Vaisya and
Sudra. The Vaisyas and Sudras are to be found in
almost all towns and villages, and especially at Tirupati,
Nagari, Naranavanam, Arni, Kottar, Palani, Palam-
cottah, Vilangudi, and Viravanallur."
The affairs of the Patnulkarans at Madura are
managed by a Saurashtra Sabha, which was started in
1895. Among the laudable objects for which the Sabha
was established, the following may be noted :

(a) To manage the Madura Saurashtra school,
and establish reading-rooms, libraries, etc., with a view
to enable members of the Saurashtra community to
receive, on moderate terms, a sound, liberal, general and
technical education.
(b) To manage the temple known as the Madura
Sri Prasanna Venkateswara Swami's temple, and contri-
bute towards its maintenance by constructing, repairing
and preserving buildings in connection therewith, mak-
ing jewels, vehicles and other things necessary therefor,
and conducting the festivals thereof.
(c) To found charitable institutions, such as orphan-
ages, hospitals, poor-houses, choultries (resting-places
for travellers), water-sheds, and other things of a like
nature for the good of the Saurashtra community.
(d) To give succour to the suffering poor, and
the maimed, the lame, and the blind in the Saurashtra
community.
(e) To give pecuniary grants in aid of upanaya-
nams (thread marriages) to the helpless in the Saurashtra
community.
To erect such works of utility as bathing
ghauts, wells, water fountains, and other works of utility
for the benefit of the Saurashtra community.
(g) To fix and raise subscriptions known as
mahamais (a sort of income-tax).
Among the subjects of the lectures delivered in con-
nection with the Saurashtra Upanyasa Sabha at Madura
in 1901 were the life of Mrs. Annie Besant, the Paris
Exhibition of 1900, Mr. Tata and higher education,
Saurashtra bank, Columbus, and the Saurashtra reform
hotel.
A few years ago, the Saurashtra community sub-
mitted a memorial to the Governor of Madras to the effect
that " as the backward Saurashtra community have not
the requisite capital of half a lakh of rupees for imparting
to their members both general and technical education,
the Saurashtra Sabha, Madura, suggests that a lottery
office may be kept for collecting shares at one rupee
each from such of the public at large as may be willing
to give the same, on the understanding that, every time
the collections aggregate to Rs. 6,250, Rs. 250 should be
set apart for the expenses of working the said office, and
two-thirds of the remainder for educational purposes,
and one-third should be awarded by drawing lots among
the subscribers in the shape of five prizes, ranging
from Rs. 1,000 to Rs. 125." In passing orders on this
sporting scheme, the Government stated that it was not
prepared to authorise the lottery. It has been well
said * (* Gazetteer of the Madura district,)that the Patnulkarans have a very strong esprit de
corps, and this has stood them in good stead in their
weaving, which is more scientifically carried on, and in
a more flourishing condition than is usual elsewhere.
For the following note on the Patnulkaran weavers
of Madura, I am indebted to Mr. A. Chatterton, Direc-
tor of Technical Enquiries : " As a general rule, they
are in a flourishing condition, and much better off than
the Saurashtra weavers in Salem. This is probably
due to the fact that the bulk of the Madura trade is in a
higher class of cloth than at Salem, and the weavers are
consequently less affected by fluctuations in demand for
their goods due to seasonal variations. In various ways
the Saurashtras of Madura have furnished evidence that
they are a progressive community, particularly in the
attention which they pay to education, and the keenness
with which they are on the look-out for improvements
in the methods of carrying out their hereditary craft.
Nearly all the so-called improvements have been tried
at Madura, and the fact that they have rejected most of
them may be taken to some extent as evidence of their
unsuitability for Indian conditions. Some time ago, one
A. A. Kuppusawmy Iyer invented certain improvements
in the native shedding apparatus, whereby ornamental
patterns are woven along the borders, and on the ends
of the better class of silk and cotton cloths. This appa-
ratus was undoubtedly a material improvement upon that
which is ordinarily used by the weaver, and it has been
taken up extensively in the town. It is said that there
are 350 looms fitted with this shedding apparatus, and
the inventor, who has obtained a patent for it, is try-
ing to collect a royalty of Rs. 1-4-0 a month on each
loom. But this claim is resisted by a combination of
the weavers using this shedding apparatus, and a suit
is at the present time (1907) pending in the District
Court. One of the most important weaving enterprises
at Madura is the Meenakshi Weaving Company, the
partners of which are Ramachandra Iyer, Muthurama
Iyer, and Kuppusawmy Iyer. Their subscribed capital
is Rs. 1,00,000, of which they are spending no less than
Rs. 40,000 on building a weaving shed and office. The
Madura dyeing industry is in the hands of the Saurash-
tras, and the modern phase dates back only as far as
1895, when Mr. Tulsiram started dyeing grey yarn with
alizarine red, and, in the twelve years which have since
elapsed, the industry has grown to very large proportions.
The total sales at Madura average at present about 24
lakhs a year. There are from 30 to 40 dye-houses, and
upwards of 5,000 cwt. of alizarine red is purchased every
year from the Badische Aniline Soda Fabrik. The yarn
is purchased locally, mainly from the Madura Mills, but,
to some extent, also from Coimbatore and Tuticorin.
The mordanting is done entirely with crude native earths,
containing a large percentage of potassium salts. Dry-
ing the yarn presents considerable difficulty, especially in
the wet weather. To secure a fast even colour, the yarn
is mordanted about ten times, and dyed twice, or for
very superior work three times, and between each opera-
tion it is essential that the yarn should be dried. The
suburbs of Madura are now almost entirely covered with
drying yards."
In a note on the Patnulkarans who have settled in
Travancore, Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar writes as follows.
" The Patnulkarans are generally of yellowish tinge, and
in possession of handsomer and more intellectual features
than the Tamil castes, from which they may be easily
differentiated by even a casual observer. They are, how-
ever, more fair than cleanly. They keep in Travancore,
as elsewhere, aloof from other castes, and live independ-
ently of general society, speaking a foreign language.
This they have preserved with astonishing attachment,
and recently a Saurashtra alphabet has been invented, and
elementary books have begun to be written in that dialect.
They are a very conservative class, religious enthusiasts
of a very remarkable order, and skilful and industrious
workmen. They take a peculiar pleasure in music, and
many of them are excellent songsters. There are many
kinds of amusement for both men and women, who
generally spend their leisure in singing songs of a devo-
tional nature.
They believe largely in omens, of which
the following may be noted :
Good. A pot full of water, a burning light, no
Brahmans, a Sudra, a cow, a married woman, and gold.
Bad. A barber, a patient, a person with some
bodily defect, fuel, oil, a donkey, a pick-axe, a broom,
and a fan.
" On entering a Patnulkaran's house, we are led to
a courtyard, spacious and neat, where all the necessary
arrangements are made for weaving purposes. The
Patnulkarans live in streets. A male Patnulkaran resem-
bles a Tamil Vaishnava Brahman in outward appearance,
but the women follow the custom of the Telugu Brah-
mans alike in their costume and ornaments. Their
jewels exactly resemble those of the Telugu Brahman
women, and indicate a temporary residence of the caste
in the Telugu country on the way from Gujarat to
Madura. There is a Tamil proverb to the effect that,
if a male Patnulkaran is seen without his wife, he will
be taken for a Vaishnava Brahman, whereas, in the case
of the Tatan caste, a woman without her husband will
be taken for an Aiyangar. Children wear the karai
round the neck. Tattooing prevails on a very large
scale.
" The Patnulkarans may be divided into three classes
on a religious basis, viz., (i) pure Vaishnavites, who
wear the vertical Vaishnavite mark, and call themselves
Vadakalas or northerners ; (2) those who are mainly
Smartas ; (3) Sankara Vaishnavas, who wear gopi (sandal
paste) as their sect-mark. It is to the last of these
religious sects that the Travancore Patnulkarans belong,
though, in recent times, a few Smartas have settled at
Kottar. All these intermarry and interdine, and the
religious difference does not create a distinction in the
caste. The chief divinity of the Patnulkarans is Ven-
katachalapati of Tirupati. The month in which he is
most worshipped is Kanni (September-October), and all
the Saturdays and the Tiruvonam star of the month are
particularly devoted to his adoration. One of their men
becomes possessed on any of these days, and, holding a
burning torch-light in his hand, touches the foreheads
of the assembled devotees therewith. The Patnulkarans
fast on those days, and take an image of Garuda in
procession through the street. The Dipavali, Pannamasi
in Chittiray, and the Vaikuntha Ekadasi are other
important religious days. The Dusserah is observed,
as also are the festivals of Sri Rama Navami, Ashtami,
Rohini, Avani Avittam, and Vara Lakshmivratam.
Formal worship of deities is done by those who have
obtained the requisite initiation from a spiritual pre-
ceptor. Women who have husbands fast on full-moon
days, Mondays, and Fridays. The serpent and the
banyan tree are specially worshipped. Women sing
songs in praise of Lakshmi, and offer fruits and
cocoanuts to her. The Patnulkarans have a temple
dedicated to Sri Rama at Kottar. This temple is
visited even by Brahmans, and the priests are Aiyangars.
The Acharya, or supreme religious authority of the
Patnulkarans, in Travancore is a Vaishnava Brahman
known as Ubhaya Vedanta Koti Kanyakadana Tata-
chariyar, who lives at Aravankulam near Tinnevelly,
and possesses a large number of disciples. Once a
year he visits his flock in Travancore, and is highly
respected by them, as also by the Maharaja, who makes
a donation of money to him. Elders are appointed to
decide social disputes, and manage the common property
of the caste. In Travancore there are said to be only
three families of Patnulkaran priests. For the higher
ceremonies, Brahman priests are employed.
" A girl's marriage is usually celebrated before
puberty, and sometimes when she is a mere child ot
four or five. Great importance is attached to gotras
or exogamous septs, and it is said that the septs of
the bride and bridegroom are conspicuously inscribed
on the walls of a marriage house. In the selection
of an auspicious hour (muhurtam) for a marriage, 'two
favourable planetary situations, one closely following the
other, are necessary ; and, as such occasions are rare,
a number of marriages take place at one time. A man
may claim his maternal uncle's daughter as his wife,
and polygamy is permitted. The marriage ceremonial
resembles the Brahmanical rites in many points. On
the fourth day, a ceremonial observed by Telugu Brah-
mans, called Nagabali, is performed. The marriage
badge, which is tied on the bride's neck, is called bottu.
[From a note on the marriage ceremonies among the
Patnulkarans of Madura, I gather that, as among Telugu
and Canarese castes, a number of pots are arranged,
and worshipped. These pots are smaller and fewer in
number than at a Telugu or Canarese wedding. A
figure of a car is drawn on the wall of the house with
red earth or laterite.* (* A reddish geological formation, found all over Southern India.)On it the name of the fotra
of the bridegroom is written. On the fourth day, the
nagavali (or offering to Devas) is performed. The
contracting couple sit near the pots, and a number of
lights are arranged on the floor. The pots, which
represent the Devas, are worshipped.]
" The namakarana, or name-giving ceremony, is
performed on the eleventh day after birth. An eighth
child, whether male or female, is called Krishna, owing
to the tradition that Krishna was born as the eighth child
of Vasudeva. Babies are affectionately called Duddu
(milk) or Pilla (child). The annaprasana, or first feeding
of the child, is sometimes celebrated at the end of the
first year, but usually as a preliminary to some subse-
quent ceremony. Sometimes, in performance of a vow,
boys are taken to the shrine at Tirupati for the tonsure
ceremony. The upanayana is performed between the
seventh and twelfth years, but neither brahmacharya nor
samavartana is observed.
" The dead are burnt, and the remains of the bones
are collected and deposited under water. Death pol-
lution lasts only for ten days. The sradh, or annual
ceremony, when oblations are offered to ancestors, is
observed. Widows are allowed to retain their hair, but
remove the bottu. Unlike Brahman women, they chew
betel, and wear coloured cloths, even in old age."
The Patnulkarans have a secret trade language,
concerning which Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao writes as
follows. " The most remarkable feature about it is the
number of terms and phrases borrowed from the craft,
to which special meanings are given. Thus a man of no
status is stigmatised as a rikhta khandu, i.e., a spindle
without the yarn. Similarly, a man of little sense is
called a mhudha, the name of a thick peg which holds
one side of the roller. Likewise, a talkative person is
referred to as a rhetta, or roller used for winding the
thread upon spindles, which makes a most unpleasant
creaking noise. Kapiniker, from kapini, a technical
term used for cutting the loom off, means to make short
work of an undesirable person. A man who is past
middle age is called porkut phillias, which, in weavers'
parlance, means that half the loom is turned."
Saurashtra, more correctly, Sauraṣṭri or Sauraṣṭram or Sourashtra, also known as Palkar, Sowrashtra, Saurashtram, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in parts of the Southern Indian State of Tamil Nadu. The Saurashtra community is referred to by the same name, or sometimes by the Tamil name, "Pattunoolkaarar" (silk-thread-maker). The Ethnologue puts the number of speakers at 510,000 (1997 IMA), although the actual number could be double this figure or even more.